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Lunar Reflectors

Jump to: Mission Objectives, Mission Instrumentation, Mission Parameters, Additional Information

Mission Photos:
Lunar Lunar reflector locations

 

Mission Objectives:

In 1969, Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin deployed a variety of scientific experiments in the fine powder of the Sea of Tranquility. Among those devices was a laser ranging retroreflector, which, a generation later, is still yielding fundamental scientific data.

Scientists who analyze data from the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment have reported some watershed results from these long-term experiments, said team investigator Dr. Jean Dickey at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California.

Laser ranging has made possible a wealth of new information about the dynamics and structure of the Moon. Among many new observations, scientists now believe that the Moon may harbor a liquid core. The theory has been proposed from data on the Moon's rate of rotation and very slight bobbing motions caused by gravitational forces from the Sun and Earth.

Other recent findings from the laser ranging experiments include:

  • Verification of Einstein's theory of relativity, which states that all bodies fall with the same acceleration regardless of their mass.
  • The length of an Earth day has distinct small-scale variations, changing by about one thousandth of a second over the course of a year.
  • Precise positions of the laser ranging observatories on Earth are slowly drifting as the crustal plates on Earth drift.
  • Ocean tides on Earth have a direct influence on the Moon's orbit. Measurements show that the Moon is receding from Earth at a rate of about 1.5 inches (about 3.8 centimeters) per year.
  • Lunar ranging has greatly improved scientists' knowledge of the Moon's orbit, enough to permit accurate analyses of solar eclipses as far back as 1400 B.C.

Investigators at JPL (J. Williams, et. al.) have computed lunar ephemerides and coordinates of the lunar reflectors in two systems, principal axes and mean earth/mean rotation axes. More information about this analysis can be found in the publications listed below.

Mission Instrumentation:

The only instrumentation on the moon related to laser ranging are the five retro-reflectors arrays (three US, two French/Russian).

Mission Parameters:
Lunar Parameters
Apollo 11 Luna 17 Apollo 14 Apollo 15 Luna 21
Sponsor: United States Russia and France United States United States Russia and France
Life: Many decades Many decades Many decades Many decades Many decades
Applications: Lunar science Lunar science Lunar science Lunar science Lunar science
COSPAR ID: 0000100 0000101 0000102 0000103 0000104
Date: Jul 21, 1969 Nov 1, 1970 Feb 5, 1971 Jul 31, 1971 Jan 15, 1973
RRA Size: 46 cm by 46 cm 44 cm by 19 cm 46 cm by 46 cm 104 cm by 61 cm 44 cm by 19 cm
RRA Shape: Square Rectangular Square Rectangular Rectangular
Reflectors: 100 14 100 300 14
Orbit: Elliptical Elliptical Elliptical Elliptical Elliptical
Inclination: 5.145 degrees 5.145 degrees 5.145 degrees 5.145 degrees 5.145 degrees
Eccentricity: 0.0549 0.0549 0.0549 0.0549 0.0549
Perigee: 356,400 km 356,400 km 356,400 km 356,400 km 356,400 km
Period: 29.53 days 29.53 days 29.53 days 29.53 days 29.53 days

Additional Information:

Web sites:

Publications:

  • Alley, C.O., Bowman, S.R., Rayner, J.D., Wang, B.C., and Yang, F.M., "First Lunar Ranging Results from The University of Maryland Research Station at the 1.2M Telescope of the GSFC," Proc. of the 6th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Antibes, France, September 22-26, p. 625, 1986.
  • Bender, P., Currie, D.G., Dicke, R.H., Eckhardt, D.H., Faller, J.E., et al, "The Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment", Science, Vol. 182, pp. 229-237, 1973.
  • Bender, P.L., Faller, J.E., Hall, J.L., Degnan, J.J., Dickey, J.O., Newhal, X X, Williams, J.G., King, R.W., Machnik, L.O., O'Gara, D., Ricklefs, R.L., Shelus, P.J., Whipple, A.L., Wiant, J.R. and Veillet, C., "Microwave and Optical Lunar Transponders", Astrophysics from the Moon, AIP Conf. Proc. Series, (American Institute of Physics New York), pp. 647-653, April, 1990.
  • Bourdet, H. and Dumoulin, C., "Description of the 1.5 in Telescope Realized by INAG for the CERGA Lunar Laser Ranging System", Proc. of the 4th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Austin, Texas, published by Geodetic Institute, Univ. of Bonn, October 12-16, p. 190, 1981.
  • Bowman, S.R., Alley, C.O., Degnan, J.J., Cao, W.L., Zhang, M.Z. and Wang, N.H., "New Laser Developments Toward a Centimeter Accuracy Lunar Ranging System", 5th International Workshop on Laser ranging Instrumentation, Herstmonceux, U.K., published by Geodetic Institute, Univ. Bonn, p. 480, 1984.
  • Bowman, S.R., Rayner, J.R. and Alley, C.O., "Analysis and Performance of a Passive Polarization Telescope Coupling Switch For Lunar Laser Ranging", Proc. of the 6th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Antibes, France, September 22-26, p. 273, 1986.
  • Calame, O. and Gaignebet, J., "French Lunar Laser Ranging Station", Proc. of the 3rd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Lagonissi, Greece, May 23-27, p. 139, 1978.
  • Chapront, J., Chapront-Touze, M. and Francou, G., "A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements", Astronomy and Astrophysics. Vol. 387, p. 700, 2002.
  • Charlot, P., Sovers, O.J., Williams, J.G. and Newhall, X X, "Precession and nutation from joint analysis of radio interferometric and lunar laser ranging observations", Astron. J., 109, pp. 418-427, 1995.
  • Davies, M.E., Colvin, T.R. and Meyer, D.L., "A Unified Lunar Control Network: The Near Side", J. Geophys. Res., 92, pp. 14177-14184, 1987.
  • Dickey, J.O., Williams, J.G., and Eubanks, T.M., "Earth Rotation and Polar Motion: Results from Lunar Laser Ranging Analysis and an Intercomparison Study", Proc. of the IAG, V.2, 18th Gen. Assembly, Hamburg, pp. 12-27, 1983
  • Dickey, J.O., Williams, J.G., and Newhall, X X, "Fifteen Years of Lunar Laser Ranging Accomplishments and Future Challenges", 5th International Workshop on Laser ranging Instrumentation, Herstmonceux, U.K., published by Geodetic Institute, Univ. Bonn, p. 19, 1984.
  • Dickey, J.O., Bender, P.L., Faller, J.E., Newhall, X X, Ricklefs, R.L., Ries, J.G., Shelus, P.J., Veillet, C., Whipple, A.L., Wiant, J.R., Williams, J.G., and Yoder, C. F., "Lunar laser ranging: a continuing legacy of the Apollo program", Science 265, 482-490, 1994.
  • Dickey, J., "Lunar Geophysics, Geodesy, and Dynamics (Invited)", Presentation to 13th International Workshop on Laser Ranging, Washington, DC, USA, October 7-11, 2002.
  • Faller, J.E., Bender, P.L., Alley, C.O., Currie, D.G., and 7 others, "Geodesy Results Obtainable with Lunar Retroreflectors", The Use of Artificial Satellites for Geodesy, AGU, pp. 261-264, 1972.
  • Feng, H., Xiong, Y., Zhang, Y., and Wang, J., "An Accurate Test of the Azimuth Axis of a 1.2M Alt-AZ Telescope Mount for the Lunar Laser Ranging and the Analysis of the Results", Proc. of the 6th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Antibes, France, September 22-26, p. 281, 1986.
  • Folkner, W.M., Charlot, P., Finger, M.H., Williams, J.G., Sovers, O.J., Newhall, X X, and Standish, E.M.,"Determination of the extragalactic-planetary frame tie from joint analysis of radio interferometric and lunar laser ranging measurements", Astron. Astrophys. 287, 279-289, 1994.
  • Gaignebet, J., "New Developments on Laser Transmitters for the GRGS/CERGA Satellite and Lunar Ranging Systems", Proc. of the 3rd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Lagonissi, Greece, May 23-27, p. 220, 1978.
  • Gaignebet, J., and Sinet, C., "TV Guiding for Satellite and Lunar Ranging", Proc. of the 3rd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Lagonissi, Greece, May 23-27, p. 208, 1978.
  • Greene, B., C. Smith, Y. Gao, J. Cotter, C. Moore, J. Luck, I. Ritchie, "Lunar Ranging from Mount Stromlo", 14th International Laser Ranging Workshop, San Fernando, Spain, June 7 - 11, 2004.
  • Huang, C., Jin, W., and Xu, H., "Adaptive Ridge Regression. the Multicollinearity and its Remedy- a Case in Lunar Laser Ranging", Proc. of the 10th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Shanghai Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China, November 11-15, p. 168, 1996.
  • Kahn, W.D., Klosko, S.M., and Wells, W.T., "Mean Gravity Anomalies from a Combination of Apollo/ATS 6 and GEOS-3/ATS 6 SST Tracking Campaigns", J. Geophys. Res., 87, B4, pp. 2904-2918, 1982.
  • Kiernan, E., and White, M.L., "A Description of the Mt. Haleakala Satellite and Lunar Laser Ranging Software", 5th International Workshop on Laser ranging Instrumentation, Herstmonceux, U.K., published by Geodetic Institute, Univ. Bonn, p. 371, 1984.
  • Kokurin, Yu. L., Kurbasov, V.V., Lobanov, V.F., and Sukhanovsky, A.N., "Crimean Lunar Laser Ranging System", Proc. of the 2nd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Prague, Czechoslovakia, August 11- 16, p. 39, 1975.
  • Kokurin, Yu. L., Kurbasov, V.V., Lobanov, V.F., and Sukhanovsky, A.N., "Crimean Lunar Laser Ranging System", Proc. of the 3rd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Lagonissi, Greece, May 23-27, p. 143, 1978.
  • Konopliv, A.S., Binder, A.B., Hood, L.L., Kucinskas, A.B., Sjogren, W.L., and Williams, J.G., "Improved gravity field of the Moon from Lunar Prospector", Science 281, 1476-1480, 1998.
  • Larden, D.R., "Monitoring the Earth's Rotation by Lunar Laser Ranging", Univ. of New South Wales Rpt. No. S-20, 280pp, 1982.
  • Larden, D.R., "The Likely Impact of Tectonic Plate Motion on Earth Rotation Results from Lunar Laser Ranging", Manuscriptica Geodetica,9, pp. 137-15, 1984.
  • Leick, A., "Earth Orientation from Lunar Laser Range Differencing", OSU-Rpt. 263, 110pp, 1978.
  • Mangin, J.F., "The Laser and the Calibration of the CERGA Lunar Ranging System", Proc. of the 4th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Austin, Texas, published by Geodetic Institute, Univ. of Bonn, October 12-16, p. 313, 1981.
  • Mangin, J.F., Chabaudie, J.E., Feraudy, D., Fridelance, P., Furia, M., Glentzlin, M., Journet, A., Pham Van, J., Samain, E., Torre, J.M., and Vigouroux, G., "Millimetric Lunar Laser Ranging O.C.A/C.E.R.G.A", Proc. of the 10th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Shanghai Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China, November 11-15, p. 189, 1996.
  • Mangin, J.F., Chapront, J., and teams, "New Improvements in the Reduction of LLR Observations, News of the LLR Grasse with a particular night of Full Moon", Presentation to 12th International Workshop on Laser Ranging, Matera, Italy, November 13-17, 2000.
  • Mangin, J.F., Dumoulin, Ch., Torre, J.M., Sagnier, J.L., Kovalevsky, J., and Feraudy, D., "Description and First Results of the CERGA Lunar Laser Station", Proc. of the 4th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Austin, Texas, published by Geodetic Institute, Univ. of Bonn, October 12-16, p. 291, 1981.
  • Michael, W.H., and Tolson, R.H., "The Lunar Orbiter Project Selenodesy Experiment", The Use of Artificial Satellites for Geodesy Vol. II, pp. 609-634, 1967.
  • Morgan, P., "A Schematic of the Australian Lunar Ranger", Proc. of the 2nd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Prague, Czechoslovakia, August 11- 16, p. 89, 1975.
  • Morgan, P.J., and King, R.V., "The M.I.T. Lunar and Planetary Ephemeris", Proc. of the 4th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Austin, Texas, published by Geodetic Institute, Univ. of Bonn, October 12-16, p. 239, 1981.
  • Mulholland, J.D., and Calame, O., "Scientific Goals of Lunar Laser Ranging", Proc. of the 3rd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Lagonissi, Greece, May 23-27, p. 22, 1978.
  • Murphy, T., "The Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO)", Presentation to 12th International Workshop on Laser Ranging, Matera, Italy, November 13-17, 2000.
  • Murphy, T., "APOLLO: Multiplexed Lunar Laser Ranging", Presentation to 13th International Workshop on Laser Ranging, Washington, DC, USA, October 7-11, 2002.
  • Murphy, T., "The Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser Ranging Operation (APOLLO)", 14th International Laser Ranging Workshop, San Fernando, Spain, June 7 - 11, 2004.
  • Mueller, J., and Tesmer, V., "Investigation of Tidal Effects in Lunar Laser Ranging", Journal of Geodesy, Vol. 76, P. 232-237, 2002.
  • Newhall, X X, Williams, J.G., and Dickey, J.O., "Earth Rotation (UT0-UTC and Variation of Latitude) from Lunar Laser Ranging", International Earth Rotation Service Note 17, ed. P. Charlot, M7-M12, 1994.
  • Newhall, X X, Williams, J.G., and Dickey, J.O., "Earth Rotation (UT0) from Lunar Laser Ranging", JPL preprint No.175, submitted for the IERS annual report, 1989.
  • Newhall, X X, Williams, J.G., and Dickey, J.O., "Earth Rotation (UT0R) from Lunar Laser Ranging", JPL Pre-print No.145, for submission to the BIH Annual Report, 1986.
  • Newhall, X X, Williams, J.G., and Dickey, J.O., "Earth Rotation (UT0R) from Lunar Laser Ranging", JPL Pre-print No.157, 1987.
  • Newhall, X X, Williams, J.G., and Dickey, J.O., "Earth Rotation (UT0R) from Lunar Laser Ranging", JPL Pre-print No.168, 1988.
  • Newhall, X X, Williams, J.G., and Dickey, J.O., "Earth Rotation from Lunar Laser Ranging", JPL Pre-print No.153, 1986.
  • Newhall, X X, Williams, J.G., and Standish, E.M., "Planetary and Lunar Ephemerides, Lunar Laser Ranging, and Lunar Physical Librations", in Dynamics, Ephemerides and Astrometry of the Solar System, eds. S. Ferraz-Mello, B. Morando, and J.-E. Arlot, 37-44, 1996.
  • Newhall, X X, and Williams, J.G., "Estimation of the Lunar Physical Librations", Celestial Mech. and Dyn. Astron. 66, 21-30, 1997.
  • Ries, J. Gyorgyey R.L. Ricklefs, P.J. Shelus, J.R. Wiant, "UT0 and Variation of Latitude Determination from Lunar Laser Ranging Observations for 1969-1998", 1998 IERS Annual Report, Observatoire de Paris, France, 1999.
  • Ricklefs, R., "Consolidated Laser Ranging Prediction Format: Implications for Lunar Laser Ranging", 14th International Laser Ranging Workshop, San Fernando, Spain, June 7 - 11, 2004.
  • Ricklefs, R.L., and Ries, J.G., "Lunar Laser Ranging Data Processing in a Unix X Windows Environment", Proc. 8th Intern. Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Annapolis, MD, May 18-22, 1993, NASA Conference Publ. 3214, p. 10-6, 1992.
  • Ries, J.G., Jefferys, W.H., and Shelus, P.J., "A Different Approach to Lunar Data Analysis: The Application of Bayesian Statistics", Proc. of the 11th International Workshop on Laser Ranging, Deggendorf, Germany, September 21-25, p. 223, 1998.
  • Samain, E., G. Aridon, P. Exertier, J.F. Mangin, G.M. Lagarde, J.L. Oneto, J. Paris, F. Pierron, J.M. Torre, "MEO: The Future of the French Lunar Laser Ranging Station", 14th International Laser Ranging Workshop, San Fernando, Spain, June 7 - 11, 2004.
  • Samain, E., and Mangin, J., "Detector Studies for Millimetric Lunar Laser Ranging at OCA", Proc. of the 9th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, p . 449, 1994.
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  • Shelus, P., Ricklefs, R., Ries, J., Whipple, A., Wiant, J., "Lunar Laser Ranging at McDonald Observatory: An Upgrade to Start the 2nd Quarter Century", Proc. of the 9th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, p . 295, 1994.
  • Shelus, P.J., "A Simple Software Scheduling Tool for Efficient Observing Operations At a Lunar /LAGEOS Laser Ranging Station", Proc. of the 6th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Antibes, France, September 22-26, p. 511, 1986.
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  • Shelus, P.J., "The Science Derived from Lunar Laser Ranging", Proc. of the 10th International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Shanghai Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China, November 11-15, p. 2, 1996.
  • Shelus, P.J., Ricklefs, R.L., Whipple, A.L., and Wiant, J.R., "Lunar Laser Ranging at McDonald Observatory: 1969 to the Present", Contributions of Space Geodesy in Geodynamics: Crustal Dynamics, AGU Geodynamics Series, V.25, pp. 183-188, Edited by D.E. Smith and D.L. Turcotte, 1993.
  • Silverberg, E.C., "A Mobile Lunar Laser Station", Proc. of the 2nd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Prague, Czechoslovakia, August 11- 16, p. 98, 1975.
  • Silverberg, E.C., "Encouraging the Dual Purpose Station: Automated Lunar Guiding", Proc. of the 2nd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Prague, Czechoslovakia, August 11- 16, p. 103, 1975.
  • Silverberg, E.C., "The U.S. Lunar Laser Ranging Stations", Proc. of the 2nd International Workshop on Laser Ranging Instrumentation, Prague, Czechoslovakia, August 11- 16, p. 45, 1975.
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